The Partition

Russia and Prussia decided on the second partition in 1793. After the partition, the nation started an insurrection led by Thadeusz Kosciuszko, a hero of the American War for Independence. Victorious at the beginning, he was overwhelmed by Russian troops, wounded, and taken prisoner of war. The third partition followed in 1795. At that point, Poland only existed in the hearts and memories of her people, for on the maps of the 19th century, she was non-existent. However, Polish patriotism would be exemplified by the guns in the hands of insurrectionists; when rebellions failed, that same nationalism would be set down on paper by poets and writers of the Homeland. The three partitioning powers would attempt everything possible to absorb or destroy our nationality, but opposition would always remain strong. Already in 1797, a legion was formed in Italy to win back independence; the first line of its marching song, later to become the National Anthem, proclaimed determination and hope with the words, "Poland is not yet lost as long as we live!"

The partitions lasted from 1795-1918. During that time there existed three distinct divisions of the country – Prussian Poland (also referred to as German Poland), Russian Poland, and Austrian Poland (also referred to as Galicja). Each oppressor caused a systematic de-nationalization program aimed at absorbing the Polish people into its own nation. In response to enemy aims, the Poles put up a constant fight for cultural preservation. In addition, they caused two major insurrections (1830 and 1863) and several minor rebellions in hopes of completely restoring freedom. Although all these military attempts failed, leaving the populace at the mercy of enemies who severely punished them for their opposition, they did prove that even generations born on a land which had no geographic name or place on the map of Europe, refused to deny their right to a free Poland.

The Russians took the largest part of Polish lands in the agreement with the other partitioning powers as well as about one-half of the population. The annexation was divided into provinces called "guberniias". Changes implemented according to the Russian system included higher taxes for the peasantry and, in most cases, longer working hours under the watchful eye of Russian supervisors who thought of peasants more as property than people. A new military law was also introduced by which village youths were inducted into the Russian army for twenty-five years of service.

In the beginning of the relationship between Russia and her newly acquired territories, there was some degree of tolerance. Several governmental functions were allowed to continue separate from Russian concerns, and cultural progress in the nation was not severely curtailed. After the insurrection of 1830, however, Russian policies changed. In a period of a few years the University of Warsaw was closed, as was the Society of Friends of Learning. Collections from museums and libraries as well as art treasures were taken to Russia, and every effort was made to downplay Roman Catholicism and promote Eastern Orthodoxy (the national religion of Russia). Many members of the nobility and the gentry were deported from their own lands and tens of thousands found themselves en route – by foot – to Siberia.

As years passed there grew again a small amount of freedom for the people, and the Poles were able to organize themselves. They continued to resist martial law, Russification, and oppression. Poland was kept outside the European stream of scientific advancement, the second industrial revolution, and the growing technology; nonetheless new political, cultural, and educational advancements began to encourage a rising sense of nationalism. This inspired another insurrection in 1863. Although better organized than the first, it also failed. The Russians immediately instituted measures of harsh retribution against those involved in the uprising. Several hundred people were executed, thousands were deported to Siberia, and some three thousand estates were confiscated and given to officials of the Czar. In addition, the Russians stepped up harrassment of the Catholic Church and tried to enforce the use of Russian in sermons, liturgy, and catechism. In all schools the Russian language was the only language to be used for instruction; and in all further documents the very name of Poland was not to be used. The new name for all newly acquired provinces was Vistula Lands (Privisliansky Krai).

After the insurrection, the czarist government tried to win the support of the peasantry by announcing their emancipation. The Russian regime felt that this move would prevent peasant support of any further attempts at a revolt. The Russians commenced the emancipation with the allotment of land from the estates, but the peasants were somewhat dissatisfied since land parcels were small and scattered. Small farms could not prosper economically, thus a large number of farms became the property of more affluent villagers, while previous owners went to the cities to find work in the expanding industrial complexes. In the cities the factories had just started to expand and increased mechanization was absorbing the populace from rural areas. However, the number of people leaving the villages was higher than expected and a problem of surplus population confronted the government. (The population of Russian Poland doubled during the second half of the 19th century.)

By the 1870’s, there was widespread discontent in Russian Poland at all class levels. The nobles had lost family and friends in deportations to Siberia. The landless masses were unable to find jobs. Those who had found jobs were displeased with long working hours and unsafe conditions in the factories. The peasants left on the land were totally disgruntled with Russian tactics and laws that seemed to have no other purpose than aggravation. Revolts had failed and compromise with the regime was useless. The answer for many became obvious, and between the years 1870-1914, about 1,300,000 people left Russian Poland for the United States, Canada, and Brazil.

The Austrians, under the Hapsburg monarchy, controlled a densely populated area referred to as Galicja. It was inhabited by Poles, Ruthenians, Ukrainians, and Jews. The take-over cut the area off from the rest of the old Polish Commonwealth and this separation caused a decline in towns, a reduction in trade, and rural poverty. Reforms brought about by the Austrian rule removed many privileges of the Polish upper classes and did much to take the lawmaking and judicial proceedings out of the hands of the Poles. Peasants were granted more rights than they had previously, yet this was only a facade, for the rights were attached to heavier taxes and a military service requirement of twenty years. As the Austrians continued their occupation of the lands, education and some government functions were largely in the hands of the Poles; the district of Krakow even enjoyed some autonomy. But the masses still did not benefit, for the economy of Galicja remained backward, and the Austrians drained the province of raw materials, agricultural products, and natural resources.

As a result of the poor conditions in Austrian Poland, the revolts that took place in favor of Polish independence met with the same sad fate as they had in Russian Poland. In addition, there was even a complete turning of the peasantry against the gentry in 1846.

The situation in the Austrian sector grew worse as the years progressed. This was well illustrated in a book entitled Galician Misery (Nedza Galicji). The author, Stanislaw Szczepanowski of Lw6w, shocked the entire population. "His picture of the lowest classes in Galicja was frightening, as was his assertion that fifty thousand people died annually of starvation. Using statistical data, Szczepanowski showed that the food consumption of a citizen of Galicja was one-half that of an average European, and his working capacity was one-fourth.

Two movements arose in the Galicja area: one was political and involved the emergence of various parties (mostly liberal) seeking rights for all classes; the other sent some 1,100,000 people on ships across the Atlantic Ocean to the United States, Brazil, and Canada.

Prussian acquisitions as a result of the partitions were made up of lands in the western part of the Old Polish Commonwealth. This included Pomerania, an area bordering the Baltic Sea and home for a distinct Slavic group of people called the Kaszuby, the Poznan region, and Silesia; those parts that had not yet been incorporated into Prussia during the war between Prussia and Austria, 1740-1763.

The Prussian plan sought to Germanize new subjects, as well as place as much land as possible in the hands of German colonists arriving from western provinces. Education was primarily in the German language, and although the peasants were granted more rights, these were offset by heavier taxation and compulsory twenty-year military service.

By the 1840’s, German was proclaimed the official language of the lands under Prussia, and all courts of law were dependent on Berlin. The oppressive government then proceeded to weaken the positions of all groups who supported the Polish cause. The Church had to rely more on the state in its decision-making, and the Church lost property and the clergy lost teaching positions. During this time some efforts were made to preserve the Polishness of the people, especially in and around Poznan. This successful work was sponsored by semi-secretive societies and former professors. It continued until it fell victim to the Kulturkampf.

The Kulturkarnpf began in the 1870’s, under the rule of Otto von Bismarck. Besides joining Prussian lands with Germany, the new movement sought to expand the strength of the central government in Berlin and to reduce the power of the Poles, wherever they lived in the empire. This was done by opposing the Catholic Church, increasing German colonization among the Poles, changing names of towns, and making German the exclusive language of education and administration. The Polish response to these moves came quickly. Because of a higher level of education in Prussian Poland (as compared to the other areas under Russia and Austria), the population was able to compete with the Germans at all levels.

The Polish backlash to the Kulturkarnpf was felt not only in Poznan, but also in Pomerania where a cultural revival began among the Kaszuby. In civil elections they would choose only Poles as their representatives, and they openly proclaimed their Polishness in a slogan which was coined by Hieronim Derdowski: "There is no Kaszubia without Poland and no Poland without Kaszubia." The cultural renewal would do much to prepare the people for the rebirth of their country in the early part of the 20th century. There would be more frequent clashes between the two nationalities and the town industries would grow very slowly as a result. Competition between the two groups at various levels would also add to the unfriendly atmosphere.

For the duration of the partitions, the Polish Nation continued to produce individual geniuses, who would add much to national culture and prestige.

The following is a list of some of these important persons born or living during the ordeal at the hands of the Russian, Prussian, and Austrian authorities. Their achievements and excellence give testament to the durability of the Polish spirit.

Early History | Beginnings of Christianity | Early Leadership | First Rulers | The Latin Rite | A New Dynasty | The Queen of Poland

The End of the Monarchy | The Partition | Cultural Leaders | Poland Now